You should be aware that copper-clad aluminum wire is the least-preferred option for connecting an amplifier to your vehicle’s battery or alternator. Copper-clad aluminum wire has more resistance for a given diameter than an all-copper cable. As a result, it wastes precious voltage and transforms it into heat when it could be allowing your amplifier to make more power. Why do many high-quality speakers and subwoofers use CCAW in their voice coils? Read on for an explanation.

Speaker Parameters and Frequency Response

No single specification can describe how a speaker or subwoofer will perform. To create a product that delivers flat response through its designed operating range, speaker design engineers need to balance several factors to achieve their design goals. These factors include the speaker’s size, resonant frequency, cone mass, suspension compliance, inductive properties and target power-handling capabilities.

The graph above shows the predicted frequency response of a Rockford Fosgate T4652S woofer in red. The low-frequency response and efficiency are based primarily on the driver’s suspension compliance and the cone’s mass. The speaker’s voice coil inductance is what determines the high-frequency roll-off.

The yellow trace is the same driver, with 5 grams added to the moving mass value. As you can see, the driver is a few decibels louder at frequencies below 80 Hz and a few decibels less efficient above that frequency. The decrease in efficiency happens because the assembly is more challenging to accelerate. A second change is that the resonant frequency is lower.

The green trace is the same Rockford Fosgate driver simulation with 5 grams subtracted from the moving mass. As expected, the driver would produce less bass but be more efficient at higher frequencies.

Speaker engineers work hard to balance all these criteria to produce a product that will blend well with your subwoofers and offer good efficiency. If we take a given speaker design and add mass to the cone assembly, we increase how much bass it can produce but decrease its efficiency. Likewise, reducing the mass results in an increase in the speaker’s efficiency and a reduction in bass output.

Voice Coil Impedance Matters

Another factor that’s crucial to speaker design is voice coil impedance. When an engineer sets out to create a speaker, one of the target specifications will be for the driver to have a specific nominal impedance. Designing a speaker with a 2-ohm impedance doesn’t work if it’s intended for use with an amplifier designed for 4-ohm loads.

Speaker designers have different options for voice coil wire diameter to change the impedance of the winding. More wire means more impedance. Smaller diameter wire also increases the impedance.

However, they must create a voice coil winding tall enough to ensure that the driver remains linear at its excursion limits. The voice coil winding must also be tall enough to handle the heat it will dissipate. Dainty, small-diameter windings, like you’d find in entry-level speakers, don’t have enough physical size to dissipate large amounts of heat. When they get hot, the varnish on the wire melts, and the windings may short together or unravel. The result is a permanently damaged woofer. As such, larger-diameter windings, which use more wire, are necessary.

Another way to increase thermal power handling is to add additional layers to the voice coil. You may have seen four- and six-layer voice coils in some high-power subwoofers. These designs can handle more power than a two-layer coil. However, more copper means more resistance and more mass. The result of these mass increases is decreased speaker efficiency.

The Benefits of CCAW Voice Coils

Speaker design engineers often turn to CCAW to add resistance to a voice coil winding. For example, we might want a speaker to have a nominal impedance of 4 ohms. As such, the voice coil will require a specific amount of copper wire to hit that impedance. The designer could also use 1.62 times as much CCAW of the same diameter wire to reach the same impedance. We also want the voice coil assembly to hit a target mass to work with the cone, dust cap, spiders and surround to achieve a target mass. The choice of material for the voice coil former is also a variable.

CCAW has less mass per unit length than all-copper conductors. It also has more resistance per unit length.

Let’s look at the mass of a CCAW conductor that is 25% copper and 75% aluminum. First, we know copper has a specific gravity of 8.96. Aluminum has a specific gravity of 2.7. If we combine these in a ratio of three parts aluminum to one part copper, we have an alloy with a specific gravity of 4.265. That’s just under half the specific gravity of copper alone. For the sake of simplicity, you can generalize that CCAW weighs half as much as copper. The actual mass depends on the ratio of copper to aluminum, which varies significantly from each supplier.

Next, let’s look at resistance the same way. For a given area, copper has a resistance of 1.7×10-6 ohms per centimeter. Aluminum’s resistance is 2.7×10-6 ohms per centimeter. Most CCAW wiring offers 0.62 to 0.64 of the conductivity of pure copper.

So, a speaker designer can increase the length of the conductor in a voice coil using CCAW wire to hit a target size and impedance. They can switch to CCAW wire to decrease the mass of a voice coil assembly.

There’s No Correlation Between Amplifier Wiring and Voice Coil Design

So the next time you hear someone put down a speaker design because it features a CCAW voice coil, remind them that speaker design and power delivery goals are unrelated. When powering an amplifier, we want the lowest resistance wires possible. We want the lowest resistance wires possible when connecting a speaker or subwoofer to an amplifier. As such, we should use large-gauge, all-copper wiring. When it comes to speaker design, the goals are very different. The engineer wants a voice coil with a specific length, impedance and mass. A conductor with more resistance and less mass per unit length is one of the variables the designer can change to meet their goals.

This article is written and produced by the team at www.BestCarAudio.com. Reproduction or use of any kind is prohibited without the express written permission of 1sixty8 media.

What happens when a subwoofer is used with an oversized subwoofer enclosure? This article will look at the good, the bad and the ugly in terms of an improper match between the electromechanical characteristics of a subwoofer and the need for a proper enclosure.

Why Do Subwoofers Need an Enclosure?

If you’ve been following our series of articles on understanding subwoofer quality, then you’ll know that the purpose of a subwoofer enclosure is to act as a mechanical high-pass filter. That’s right: The enclosure limits how much low-frequency information a subwoofer produces. Why? Well, below about 250 or 300 Hz, a speaker cone has to move four times as much for every octave lower it plays. Put another way, if you have a subwoofer playing a 100-Hz tone and it’s moving 0.25 mm, it needs to move 1 mm to produce the same output at 50 Hz, and 4 mm to produce the same result at 25 Hz. It would theoretically have to move 16 mm to make the same output at 12.5 Hz.

Why is cone excursion a problem? Well, the suspension components (surround and spider), along with the length of the voice coil and thickness of the top plate, determine how far the cone can move linearly. Linearity is vital because distortion skyrockets when things get non-linear. Think of this like mechanical clipping. It can sound just as bad as an amplifier that’s clipping. In extreme cases, mechanical components of a speaker crash into each other, which can cause damage.

If you’ve ever analyzed the frequency content of popular music, you’ll know that most of it has very little audio information below 35 Hz. The chart below shows the frequency content of several songs. The trace in red is “Dance the Night” by Dua Lipa. The orange trace is “Industry Baby” by Lil Nas X feat. Jack Harlow. The yellow trace is “Paint the Town Red” by Doja Kat. “Slime You Out” by Drake is in green. “Clocks” by Coldplay is in blue. Finally, the violet trace is “I’m Shady” by Eminem. There is nothing below 35 Hz of significance in any of these tracks. That’s not to say that some music doesn’t contain significant amounts of deep bass and even infrasonic information – it’s just less common than you think.

If we can control how much the speaker cone moves at very low frequencies, we can apply a lot of power to a speaker around and above 35 Hz so it will play loudly while preventing the speaker from bottoming out. An infrasonic filter, often mistakenly called a subsonic filter, does the same thing. The electrical filter has one huge benefit: It eases the load on the amplifier, the vehicle’s electrical system and the thermal power handling requirements of the subwoofer.

A Quick Comparison of Acoustic Suspension and Bass Reflex Subwoofer Systems

Two popular types of subwoofer enclosures are used in car audio systems: acoustic suspension (sealed) and bass reflex (vented or ported) designs. An acoustic suspension enclosure is a simple sealed cabinet. The math that predicts the frequency response and excursion of the subwoofer is relatively simple, and the performance is predictable. Notably, there’s no significant change in performance if the volume of an acoustic suspension enclosure varies slightly from the specifications. A bass reflex enclosure is typically larger and includes a vent (or port) of a specific area and length to create a resonating system. At its resonant frequency, most of the sound from the enclosure comes from the vent, and the subwoofer cone moves very little. This is why using a large enough vent with proper radii on both ends is crucial.

The traces in the above image are very typical in terms of this comparison of sealed and vented enclosures. The red trace is the sealed enclosure with a net volume of 1.02 cubic feet. We can see that the low-frequency cone excursion plateaus below 50 Hz. Why? The compliance of the air inside the enclosure adds to the compliance of the subwoofer’s suspension to limit motion. In short, the suspension becomes stiffer.

The yellow trace represents a vented enclosure with a net volume of 1.79 cubic feet and a vent tuned to 40 Hz. Around 60 Hz, the cone excursion on the vented enclosure is slightly higher. This increase happens because the enclosure is larger. Around the tuning frequency of 40 Hz, the woofer cone barely moves. The graph below shows the velocity of the column of air in the vent at the same 400-watt drive level.

The yellow trace shows us that the vent’s air column moves the most at 40 Hz. This makes sense, as this small area produces most of the sound from the enclosure at this frequency.

How Acoustic Suspension Enclosure Volume Affects Response and Excursion

Let’s start looking at how changes in enclosure volume affect frequency response and cone excursion. Considering both of these criteria is crucial since the enclosure’s purpose is to prevent our subwoofer from bottoming out.

Let’s use a roughly 25% variance in enclosure volumes so that the differences in performance are clearly visible. All drivers can work within a range of volumes, so 10% either way just isn’t going to make a huge difference.

In the graph above, I’ve modeled the predicted response of a Rockford Fosgate Punch P2D2-12 subwoofer, which is in the BestCarAudio.com lab for an upcoming Test Drive Review. The red trace is our 1.02-cubic-foot enclosure that matches the acoustic suspension enclosure suggestion on the Rockford Fosgate website. The green trace is a 0.75-cubic-foot enclosure. As expected, using this enclosure reduces output below 65 Hz and increases the resonant peak up to around 80 Hz. Going the other way, we have a 1.25-cubic-foot enclosure in light green and a 1.5-cubic-foot enclosure in orange. The increase in low-frequency output below 65 Hz isn’t significant, which tells us the driver’s suspension plays a more substantial role in cone control.

Regarding outright “accuracy,” the larger enclosures have a lower total system Q. This value is called the Qtc. Lower Qtc values correlate to less resonance and, consequently, tighter sound. The 0.75-cubic-foot enclosure has a Qtc of 0.976, which is considered high. The “optimized” 1.02-cubic-foot enclosure has a Qtc of 0.881, which is still on the high side but gives us a good upper bass kick with some added efficiency. The 1.25- and 1.5-cubic-foot enclosures have Qtc values of 0.826 and 0.781. Many consider a Qtc of 0.707 to be the ideal Q-factor. In reality, it’s a good balance of efficiency and damping. The ideal Qtc is 0.5, but an enclosure with enough volume to produce that value can result in excursion issues. The Qts value of this subwoofer is 0.52, so it’s impossible to get a Qtc value lower than that.

Speaking of excursion, let’s look at a comparison of cone excursion versus frequency for our four sealed enclosures.

As expected, the larger enclosures allow the woofer cone to move more at lower frequencies. Fortunately, this subwoofer has an Xmax specification of 13.3 mm, so we don’t run into any issues at any frequency at this power level.

Let’s look at an extreme comparison of sealed enclosure volumes.

The graphs above show the 1.02-cubic-foot enclosure predicted response in red and the subwoofer’s response in a 3.0-cubic-foot enclosure in violet. Larger enclosures mean more output at lower frequencies. This massive enclosure produces 3.3 dB more output at 30 Hz. That’s not a huge gain, but it represents an increase similar to what you’d hear if you could provide the subwoofer with twice as much power.

We do run into a problem, though. At frequencies below 20 Hz, the driver will exceed its 13.3-millimeter Xmax specification. A nice shallow -6 dB/octave infrasonic filter set to 20 Hz would protect this driver from damage should your music contain audio below 20 Hz. Your installer would have to use a DSP to configure an infrasonic filter like this.

Bass Reflex Enclosure Volume Comparisons

Let’s look at bass reflex enclosures with the same Rockford Fosgate P2D2-12 driver. We’ll start with the 1.79-cubic-foot suggested enclosure as our reference, then go up and down by 25% while maintaining the same 40-hertz tuning frequency.

In the chart above, the yellow trace is our reference 1.79-cubic-foot enclosure tuned to 40 Hz. The green trace represents an enclosure volume of 1.35 cubic feet, the light green trace is 2.24 cubic feet, and the orange is 2.68 cubic feet. The results show that the system’s peak output frequency moves closer to the tuning frequency as volume increases. Let’s look at the vent air velocity graph to see if it corroborates this hypothesis.

The maximum vent air velocity frequency moves closer to 40 Hz as the enclosure volume increases. It’s worth noting that the 4-inch diameter vent isn’t suitable for the largest volume enclosure as the velocity exceeds 34.5 meters per second. The vent must be larger and subsequently longer to function correctly with this enclosure volume. Analyzing vent air velocity is another crucial part of subwoofer enclosure design.

It should be no surprise that the larger enclosures provide less control over woofer cone excursion. Fortunately, the high tuning frequency controls cone motion around 50 to 60 Hz. Below the tuning frequency, we need an infrasonic filter set to 27 Hz for the largest enclosure to keep things under control at this power level.

Effects of Tuning Frequency on Output and Cone Excursion

We put woofers in larger enclosures to get them to play louder at lower frequencies. Let’s look at what happens if we change the tuning frequency of our reference 1.79-cubic-foot enclosure.

The chart above shows our reference enclosure of 1.79 cubic feet tuned to 40 Hz in yellow. The green trace is the same volume tuned to 45 Hz. The light green trace shows the enclosures’ predicted response when tuned to 35 Hz. The orange trace represents a tuning frequency of 30 Hz. There are no surprises here as we trade upper bass output for more output at lower frequencies.

Once again, there are no surprises shown here. The dip in cone excursion aligns with the different tuning frequencies. We don’t have any excursion problems above the tuning, and an infrasonic filter will keep things safe at lower frequencies.

What happens if we combine smaller and larger enclosure volumes with different tuning frequencies? In this example, with the Rockford Fosgate subwoofer, things work out. But that’s not always the case.

In the graph above, the yellow trace is our 1.79-cubic-foot enclosure tuned to 40 Hz. The green trace is 1.35 cubic feet tuned to 45 Hz. The light green trace is 2.24 cubic feet tuned to 35 Hz. Finally, the orange trace is 2.68 cubic feet tuned to 30 Hz.

Knowing that larger enclosure volumes focus the subwoofer system output around the tuning frequency, we should be able to get even deeper bass if we combine a larger enclosure with deeper tuning. Sure enough, the graph above supports this. The 2.68-cubic-foot enclosure tuned to 30 Hz would rumble! Driver excursion limits are very similar to the previous simulations.

Now, can we go too far with variances in enclosure volumes? What if someone doesn’t understand balancing speaker protection with frequency response and constructs a massive enclosure with a very low tuning frequency? Let’s look at that.

The massive 6-cubic-foot enclosure shown above is tuned to 17 Hz and has an F3 frequency of 24.5 Hz. On paper, this looks like a great home theater subwoofer enclosure. However, looking at the excursion graph shows us we have a problem. At 26.5 Hz, the massive enclosure isn’t controlling cone excursion. We are within a millimeter of the driver exceeding its limits. Remember from our subwoofer quality comparisons that distortion increases with excursion. So this solution likely won’t sound all that great, even if it produces lots of output at low frequencies.

Lesser subwoofers used in moderately large enclosures often encounter excursion issues above the tuning frequency. This is common with drivers with very compliant suspensions.

Proper Enclosure Modelling is Crucial

We see people on the internet “designing” subwoofer enclosures with free software daily. We love that enthusiasts want to experiment and build their audio systems. However, the instructions for the software don’t include knowing how to interpret the data these software packages deliver. You’ll find many expert mobile enhancement retailers who know how to combine enclosure designs with digital signal processing and the natural transfer function of a vehicle to deliver impressively compact and efficient subwoofer enclosure solutions that sound phenomenal and operate reliably.

So what happens when you put a subwoofer in an oversized subwoofer enclosure? Well, you might get more deep bass. You might get more controlled bass. You might run into excursion-based power handling issues and damage the driver. Thankfully, subwoofers from top-tier brands like Rockford Fosgate have a balance of suspension design and excursion capability, making them very flexible and resistant to enclosure design and construction errors. If you want the bass in your vehicle to sound the best it can, drop by a local specialty mobile enhancement retailer and have them design a custom enclosure that maximizes the available space in your vehicle and ensures that the subwoofers you’ve chosen will work well with your amplifier.

This article is written and produced by the team at www.BestCarAudio.com. Reproduction or use of any kind is prohibited without the express written permission of 1sixty8 media.

One thing common to every car audio subwoofer enclosure is that they need to connect to the subwoofer amplifier. Most subwoofer enclosures include a terminal cup or something similar to facilitate easy connection to the subwoofers. Let’s look at subwoofer enclosure speaker wire connection options.

Guess What? Ohm’s Law

If you’re serious about car audio, Ohm’s law should be tattooed on your body – or at least, you should understand it explicitly. Almost every electrical connection requires some consideration of voltage, current and resistance. Regarding subwoofer enclosure terminals, we’ve seen many discussions where the primary consideration was power. In reality, power isn’t the issue – current is.

Let’s say you have an 800-watt amplifier powering your subwoofer enclosure. If the subwoofers in the enclosure have a net nominal impedance of 4 ohms, the amplifier must flow 14.14 amps through the wires to the enclosure. In terms of appropriately sized wiring, if your installation uses 5 feet of 16 AWG wire, you’d waste 1% of the energy from the amp as losses in the wire itself. Eight watts isn’t much and isn’t anything to worry about. Jump to 12 AWG, and the losses are only 3.4 watts. It’s still not something you’re going to lose sleep over.

These days, most car audio amplifier manufacturers offer subwoofer amplifiers designed to produce power into lower impedance loads. Let’s say your amplifier delivers 800 watts into a 2-ohm load. The amp must provide 20 amps of current to make the same power. Losses in the wiring still aren’t a huge issue. Five feet of all-copper, full-sized 16 AWG wire would convert 17 of the 800 watts into heat. Jumping to 12 AWG drops that to 6.8 watts. Still not a mess.

Let’s say your subwoofer enclosure has a nominal impedance of 1 ohm, and your chosen amp can deliver 800 watts into this impedance. We are now talking about 28 amps of current flowing through the speaker wire. That 5-foot run of 16 AWG wire would waste 34.4 watts of energy. The issue is that the power is wasted as heat. Dissipating almost 35 watts of heat is challenging, and the wire will get warm. When conductors increase in temperature, their resistance increases. That’s a whole other can of worms! If your installer uses 12 AWG wire to connect your amp to your subwoofers, the losses are down around 13.6 watts – which is pretty safe.

A quick side note about low-impedance subwoofer loads: All but two or three of the hundreds of amplifiers I’ve tested increase the distortion they add to an audio signal when driving lower impedance loads. Every amplifier I’ve tested presents a significant reduction in amplifier efficiency caused by running subwoofers at lower impedances. If you care about sound quality in any way, you’ll find a nice two-channel amp and bridge it to run your subwoofers at a 4-ohm load.

Here’s a quick chart to show how much current is required to feed subwoofers with different power levels of amplifiers and 4-, 2-and 1-ohm loads.

Any time current flows through a connection, there is going to be some amount of resistance. When current flows through a resistor, be it resistance in a connection or an actual resistor component, heat is generated. The formula to calculate the power wasted in a resistor is P = R x I x I. As the current in the equation is squared (I x I), small increases in current flow result in significant increases in the amount of wasted power and heat created.

Subwoofer Enclosure Terminal Cups and Connections

If you visit a local specialty mobile enhancement retailer and look at the prefabricated subwoofer enclosures they offer, you’ll see a variety of terminal cup solutions. Some use large binding posts that accept bare wire up to 10 or even 8 AWG. Others use small spring-loaded terminals that might accept 14 AWG wire.

The first terminal we’ll look at is the basic spring-loaded terminal type. This terminal type will be the least ideal for conducting surface area between the speaker wire from your amplifier and the connections inside the amplifier. All the current has to pass through a thin piece of stamped steel. We see people sharing images of these terminals melting all the time.

The next step up in terminal cup quality is also spring-loaded but has significantly more surface area. These terminals pass the current through a stud rather than a piece of stamped steel.

A common drawback with this type of connection is that some are designed so the clamping portion doesn’t squeeze small-gauge wire well. If the speaker wire is flopping around loose, things will get hot when you pour on the power. If the springs have enough pressure, the right size wire is used and the wire is inserted properly, these should work better than the previous option.

The last terminal cups we’ll look at are called binding posts. These are similar to the previous cup in that the wire is inserted into a hole in the center stud. A nut threads down to secure the connection rather than a spring applying pressure to the wire.

The number one issue is whether or not the nuts are tightened correctly and if they stay tight. If anything were to loosen over time, you’d end up with a high-resistance connection, which will produce significant amounts of heat.

If your car audio system uses binding posts, it’s worth checking them frequently to make sure they’re tight.

Testing Subwoofer Terminal Cups

So, just how much current can a terminal cup handle? As you can imagine, this is an excellent idea for some testing. We rounded up a few cups and connected them to the power wire on an amplifier. With a shunt resistor in series, we can accurately measure current flow. We wired the terminal cups up one at a time and slowly increased the current flow until they produced significant amounts of heat. We’ll give them an approximate current rating based on being able to handle two minutes at a specific current level. You can use the chart above to determine the amount of power the cup can handle based on the impedance of your subwoofers.

Up first was the inexpensive spring-loaded cup. We started with 5 amps of current. Not much exciting happened, and the connection generated no heat. Things stayed pretty steady as we increased current. The voltage drop also increased reasonably steadily. By 15 amps of current, the connection to the wire was producing 100 degrees F of heat. Fifteen amps equals 225 watts with the subwoofers wired to a 1-ohm load. Things started to go south at 23 amps of current, or just over 500 watts when wired to 1-ohm. The connection increased in temperature faster. At 24 amps, I could smell something, and the connection was over 180 degrees. At 25 amps, the plastic spring block started to smoke, and the connector melted. The wire is now permanently attached to the cup.

The other terminal cup I had here in the lab was a threaded binding-post style. I hypothesized that the added surface area of the center post, combined with the nut on the back securing the tab in place, would help provide less resistance and, thus, more current carrying capacity.

Once again, things seemed fine with current levels up to about 6 amps, with no measurable heat at the connection. Six amps equals 36 watts of power to a 1-ohm load. As with the inexpensive spring-loaded block, resistance increased as the current flow increased. The connection reached 100.5 degrees with 18 amps of current, which is only slightly better than the first terminal. However, this is nowhere near the performance I expected. At 28 amps of current, or 784 watts into a 1-ohm load, the entire metal assembly had melted the plastic, and the terminal started drooping.

Let’s do some quick math on my measurements during the testing. First, I measured the voltage drop from the wire connected to the terminal (just beside the connector) to the terminal strip on the back of each terminal cup. The graph below shows the blue spring-loaded cup and the orange binding post.

I used my thermal imaging camera to measure the temperature of each connection at each current level.

If we want to extrapolate some current handling limits from the day, the spring-loaded cup is good for about 22 amps of current, and the binding post cup can handle about 25 amps. These are, of course, continuous current numbers. These correlate to 484 watts at 1 ohm, 968 watts at 2 ohms and 1,936 watts at 4 ohms for the spring-loaded cup. The binding post can theoretically handle 625 watts at 1 ohm, 1,250 at 2 ohms, and 2,500 at 4 ohms.

There are a few caveats to this test. These are continuous current measurements. If you’re listening to very dynamic music, you can likely use more power. However, things don’t take long to melt at the upper limits, so be cautious in choosing your subwoofer enclosure.

Another caveat is that we used 14 AWG all-copper wire. You may experience different performance levels with larger or smaller conductors.

The Best Way to Connect to a Subwoofer Enclosure

Doing this quick test also gave us the idea to test a few quick-connect styles as suitable solutions for delivering significant amounts of power to a subwoofer enclosure. You’ll have to watch for that article soon. In the meantime, we suggest choosing an enclosure that uses multiple terminals if you’re attempting to deliver significant power at low impedances. Your local specialty mobile enhancement retailer can then run multiple speaker wires back to the amplifier to improve efficiency and provide an audio system that is as reliable as possible. Better yet, forego any connector and ask them to run the speaker wires directly from the amp to the subwoofers and seal the wire where it enters the enclosure.

This article is written and produced by the team at www.BestCarAudio.com. Reproduction or use of any kind is prohibited without the express written permission of 1sixty8 media.